Conquistador
1. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Conquistador (meaning "Conqueror" in the Spanish language) is the term used to refer to the soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th through the 17th century.
After the discoveries of Columbus had gained Spain a foothold in America, expeditions were soon set out to conquer and evangelize this 'New World'.
The leaders of these expeditions are called conquistadores, a name that denotes that they felt connected with the reconquista, the Christian (re)conquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim Moors (711-1492). They also evoked the name of Santiago Matamoros ("St. James the Moor-killer") before going into battle against the Indians, another echo of this connection with the reconquista.
Many of the conquistadors were poor nobles (hidalgos) looking forward to make fortune in the Indies since they couldn't in Europe.
The first Spanish conquest in the Americas was the island of Hispaniola. From there Juan P conce de León conquered Puerto Rico and Diego Velázquez took Cuba. The first settlement on the mainland was Darién in Panama, settled by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in 1512.
The most successful conquistador was Hernán Cortés, who in 1520-1521, with Native American allies, overran the mighty Aztec empire, thus making Mexico (then called New Spain) a part of the Spanish empire. Of comparable importance was the conquest of the Inca empire by Francisco Pizarro.
After this, rumours of golden cities (Cibola in North America, El Dorado in South America) caused several more expeditions to be sent out, but many of those returned without having found their goal, or having found it, finding it much less valuable than was hoped.
Most of the conquistadors acted cruel towards the inhabitants of the regions they visited or conquered, killing, enslaving and otherwise abusing them. Some Spaniards, singularly the priest Bartolomé de Las Casas defended Native Americans against of the abuses of conquistadors. In 1542, New Spanish colonial laws were made to protect Indians, known as the New Laws of 1542. In 1552, Bartolomé de las Casas published "Short Account of the Destruction of the West Indies" (Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias), which was used by the other European colonial powers, rivals of Spain, in criticism of Spain's role.
There is also the female, called a conquistadora. One conquistadora that is always going to be remembered is Ines Suarez. Ines came to the Americas around the age of thirty in search for her husband around 1537. After continuous days of searching in numerous contries of South America, she came upon a man who was dead; her husband. Shortly after the death, Suarez became the mistress of the great conqueror of Chile in that time period.
Conquistador
1. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Conquistador (meaning "Conqueror" in the Spanish language) is the term used to refer to the soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th through the 17th century.
After the discoveries of Columbus had gained Spain a foothold in America, expeditions were soon set out to conquer and evangelize this 'New World'.
The leaders of these expeditions are called conquistadores, a name that denotes that they felt connected with the reconquista, the Christian (re)conquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim Moors (711-1492). They also evoked the name of Santiago Matamoros ("St. James the Moor-killer") before going into battle against the Indians, another echo of this connection with the reconquista.
Many of the conquistadors were poor nobles (hidalgos) looking forward to make fortune in the Indies since they couldn't in Europe.
The first Spanish conquest in the Americas was the island of Hispaniola. From there Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico and Diego Velázquez took Cuba. The first settlement on the mainland was Darién in Panama, settled by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in 1512.
The most successful conquistador was Hernán Cortés, who in 1520-1521, with Native American allies, overran the mighty Aztec empire, thus making Mexico (then called New Spain) a part of the Spanish empire. Of comparable importance was the conquest of the Inca empire by Francisco Pizarro.
After this, rumours of golden cities (Cibola in North America, El Dorado in South America) caused several more expeditions to be sent out, but many of those returned without having found their goal, or having found it, finding it much less valuable than was hoped.
Most of the conquistadors acted cruel towards the inhabitants of the regions they visited or conquered, killing, enslaving and otherwise abusing them. Some Spaniards, singularly the priest Bartolomé de Las Casas defended Native Americans against of the abuses of conquistadors. In 1542, New Spanish colonial laws were made to protect Indians, known as the New Laws of 1542. In 1552, Bartolomé de las Casas published "Short Account of the Destruction of the West Indies" (Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias), which was used by the other European colonial powers, rivals of Spain, in criticism of Spain's role.
There is also the female, called a conquistadora. One conquistadora that is always going to be remembered is Ines Suarez. Ines came to the Americas around the age of thirty in search for her husband around 1537. After continuous days of searching in numerous contries of South America, she came upon a man who was dead; her husband. Shortly after the death, Suarez became the mistress of the great conqueror of Chile in that time period.
The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for reconquest) was the conquest of the 1. Moorish kingdoms of Spain by Christian rulers, culminating on January 2, 1492 when Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Catolicos, ("The Catholic Monarchs") expelled the last of the Moorish rulers, Boabdil of Granada, from the Iberian peninsula, uniting most of what is now Spain under their rule (Navarre was not incorporated until 1512).
After the Muslim invasion of Iberia in 711 and the Battle of Guadalete the Moors had conquered most of Iberia within five years. The reconquest begain in 718 with the defeat of the Muslim army at Alcama by the Visigoth Pelayo.
It was not until later centuries that the Christians started to see their conquests as part of a secular effort to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom.
The battle against Moors did not keep the Christian kingdoms from battling among themselves or allying with Islamic kings. For example, the earlier kings of Navarre were family of the Banu Qasi of Tudela. The Moorish kings often had wives or mothers born Christians. Also Christian champions like the Cid were contracted by Taifa kings to fight against their neighbours.
In the late years of Al-Andalus, Castile had the military power to conquer the remains of the kingdom of Granada, but the kings preferred to claim the tribute of the parias. The commerce of Granadan goods and the parias were a main way for the African gold to enter medieval Europe.
In the High Middle Ages, the fight against the Moors in Iberia was linked to the fight of the whole Christendom. Military orders like order of Santiago, Montesa, the Temple Knights were founded or called. The Popes called the knights of Europe to the Crusades in the Peninsula. French, Navarrese, Castilian and Aragonese armies united in the massive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).
The Christians called Saint James their protector saint (today he is still the patron of Spain) under the advocation of Santiago Matamoros ("St. James the Moor-killer").
The big territories awarded to military orders and nobles were the origin of the latifundies in today's Andalusia and Extremadura.
The mixing of Christians, Muslims and Jews was to cause later crisis and the limpieza de sangre rules of ethnic purity of the Modern Ages.
Social types under the ReconquistaThe advances and retreats created several social types:
the Mozarabs: Descendants of Visigothic or Romanic dwellers who did not convert to Islam. Some of them migrated to the North in times of persecution.
the Muladi: Christians who converted to Islam after the invasion.
the Renegade: Christian individuals who embraced Islam and often fight against their former compatriots.
the Mudejar: Muslims dwelling in land conquered by the Christians. They were usually peasants. Their characteristic architecture of adobe bricks was frequently employed in churches commissioned by the new lords. Their descendants after 1492 were called Moriscos
Currently, along the Mediterranean coast, the festivals of moros y cristianos ("Moors and Christians") recreate the fights as colourful parades with elaborate garments and lots of fireworks.
New World is one of the names used for the continents of 1. North and South America collectively, in use since the 16th century. The continents were new to the Europeans, who knew the world consisting only of Europe, Asia, and Africa (the Old World).
The New World should be distinguished from the Modern World.
Nowadays, the term is generally used:
in a historical context when talking about the European discovery of the Americas, as in discussions of Spanish exploration, Christopher Columbus, et cetera.
in describing groups of animals within biology:
Naming of America1. The earliest known use of the name America for the continents of the Americas dates from 1507. It appears on a globe and a large map created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller. An accompanying book, Cosmographiae Introductio, explains that the name was derived from that of the explorer Amerigo Vespucci, by first Latinizing it to 'Americus Vespucius' and then taking the feminine form 'America'. 'Amerigo' is a form of the German name Haimirich, meaning 'ruler of the Home', from 'haim' (home) and 'rich' (powerful). Christopher Columbus, who had first brought the continent's existence to the attention of Renaissance-era voyagers, had died in 1506 and could not protest Waldseemüller's decision.
A few alternative theories have been proposed, but none of them have any widespread acceptance. One alternative first proposed by a Bristol antiquary and naturalist, Alfred Hudd, was that America is derived from Richard Amerike, a merchant from Bristol, England who is believed to have financed John Cabot's voyage of discovery to Newfoundland in 1497. Waldseemüller's maps appear to incorporate information from the early British journeys to North America. The theory holds that a variant of Amerike's name appeared on an early British map (of which however no copies survive) and that this was the true inspiration for Waldseemüller. (See under Richard Amerike
Vespucci's role in the naming issue, like his exploratory activity, is unclear. Some sources say that he was unaware of the widespread use of his name to refer to the new landmass. Others hold that he promulgated a story that he had made a "secret voyage" westward and sighted land in in 1. 1491, a year before Columbus. If he did indeed make such claims, they backfired — only serving to prolong the ongoing debate on whether the “Indies” were really new land, or just an extension of Asia.
Mainland Spain is dominated by high plateaus and mountain ranges such as the 1. Pyrenees or the Sierra Nevada. Running from these heights are several major rivers such as the Tagus, the Ebro, the Duero, the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir. Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia. Spain is bound to the east by Mediterranean Sea (containing the Balearic Islands), to the north by the Bay of Biscay and to its west by the Atlantic Ocean, where the Canary Islands off the African coast are found.
Spain's climate is mostly temperate and mediterranean; there are clear hot summers in the interior, with more moderate and cloudy conditions along the coast. Winters are cloudy and cold in the interior, with the coastal regions being relatively temperate
Early settlements by the Spanish were on the islands of the 1. Caribbean. On his fourth and final voyage in 1502 Columbus encountered a large canoe off the coast of what is now Honduras filled with trade goods. He boarded the canoe and rifled through the cargo which included cacao beans, copper and flint axes, copper bells, pottery, and colorful cotton garments. He took one prisoner and what he wanted from the cargo and let the canoe continue. This was the first contact of the Spanish with the civilizations of Central America.
The Treaty of Tordesillas was an attempt to solve the disputes with the Portuguese colonizers. It split the mostly unknown New World into two spheres of influence; however, when it was fully charted almost all the land fell in the Spanish sphere.
It was 1517 before another expedition from Cuba visited Central America landing on the coast of the Yucatán in search of slaves. This was followed by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards (just having finished a war against the Muslims in the Iberian peninsula) replaced the Amerindian local oligarchies and imposed a new religion: Christianity. (See also: Conquistador, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, Bartolomé de las Casas, Spanish Conquest of Yucatan)
Effect on NativesEuropean diseases and cruel systems of work (the famous haciendas and mining industry's mita) decimated the Amerindian population under its government. The Amerindians were killed from European diseases, leaving less workers for the mita and on the plantations. African Negro slaves began to be imported. Africans had been exposed to the diseases for centuries and therefore had evolved an immunity. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language in the same measurement and the Catholic Church even evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl and Guarani, contributing to the expansion of these Amerindian languages and equipping them with writing systems. The Amerindians allowed parts of Christianity to be a part in their lives due to their belief of manay. The Crown was not satisfied with this half-conversion and began forcing the Natives into plantations, work, eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbreeded, forming a Mestizo class. They were forced to trade and pay taxes to the Spanish government and were punished for disobeying the laws. Their idols were ruined by inspectors and their goods were traded to Europe, for the Amerindian signature design of geometrical designs were much different from the realistic figurative art of European countries.
Spanish coloniesAreas in the Americas under Spanish control included most of South and Central America, Mexico, parts of the Caribbean and much of the United States.
The initial years saw a struggle between the Conquistadores and the royal authority. The Conquistadores were often poor nobles that wanted to acquire the land and labourers (Encomienda) that they couldn't achieve in Europe. Rebellions were frequent (See Lope de Aguirre).
Caribbean Spain claimed all islands in the Caribbean although they did not settle all of them. They had settlements in the Windward and Leeward Islands and:
Antigua and Barbuda
Cuba
Hispaniola, the modern Dominican Republic and Haiti
Jamaica
Puerto Rico
South AmericaArgentina - Buenos Aires was settled in 1580; independence was formally declared in 1816.
Bolivia - La Paz founded in 1548. Independent in 1825.
Chile - In 1541, the Spanish conquered the Incas. Chile won its independence from Spain in 1818
Colombia - In 1510 Spaniards founded Darien, the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas. In 1538 they established the colony of New Granada. Independence in 1824.
Ecuador - Conquistador Francisco Pizarro conquered the land in 1532; left Spain in 1809 to form Greater Columbia.
Paraguay - Asuncion, Paraguay was founded in 1537. Independent from 1811.
Peru - Conquered from the Incas in 1531. Independent in 1821.
Uruguay - Taken by Spain from Portugal in 1778. Part of Brazil from 1821-1828. Independence in 1828.
Venezuela - Caracas was founded in 1567. Independent in 1821.
Central AmericaCosta Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala - Settled by Spanish in 1523,
Honduras
Nicaragua - Founded in 1524 by Hernandez de Cordoba
These countries became independent from Spain in 1821 during Mexico's war of independence.
Panama - As part of Columbia, independent in 1819.
North AmericaMexico
Florida including parts of modern-day Alabama and Mississippi
California and New Mexico - In the west the extent of Spanish colonies was formally set in 1819 by the Adam-Onis Treaty to replace nebulous boundaries. Most of the interior was not permanently inhabited by Spain. This included all or some part of the modern U.S. states of: California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Oklahoma, Kansas, Wyoming.
Louisiana territory - Spain controlled this territory from 1762-1803. Most of the north and interior was not inhabited by Spain. French settlers made up most of the inhabitants and new immigrants. This included land in the present U.S. states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Idaho, and Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
New World TradeThe precious metals were subjected to the Quinto Real tax, a fifth of everything seized. The silver of America (especially the mines of Zacatecas and Potosí) went to pay the enormous debt brought by the wars against the Reformation led by the Spanish kings.
Soon the exclusive of commerce between Europe and America was conceded to Seville (later to Cádiz).
Mexico served as a base for the later colonization of the Philippines (see Galeón de Manila)
Northern extent of Spanish influenceIn 1720 a small expedition from Santa Fe met and attempted to parley with French allied Pawnee in what is now Nebraska. Things did not go well and a battle ensued; the Spanish were badly defeated, only 13 managing to return to New Mexico. Although this was a small engagement, it is significant being the furthest penetration of the Spanish into the Great Plains, setting the limit to Spanish expansion and influence there.
In 1781, a Spanish expedition during the American Revolutionary War left St. Louis, Missouri, then under Spanish control and reached as far as Fort St. Joseph at Niles, Michigan where the captured the fort while the British were away. Spanish territorial claims based on this furthest north penetration of Spain in North America were not supported at the treaty negotiations.
IndependenceDuring the Peninsula War, several assemblies were established by the creole to rule the lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. This experience of self-government and the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions brought the struggle for independence, led by the Libertadores. The colonies freed themselves, often with help from the British empire, which aimed to trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In 1898, the United States won the Spanish-American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish occupation in the Americas.
Still, the early 20th century saw a stream of immigration of poor people and political exiles from Spain to the former colonies, especially Cuba, Mexico and Argentina. After the 1970s, the flow was inverted.
In the 1990s, Spanish companies like Repsol and Telefonica invested in South America, often buying privatized companies.
Currently, the Iberoamerican countries and Spain and Portugal have organized themselves as the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones
Early settlements by the Spanish were on the islands of the 1. Caribbean. On his fourth and final voyage in 1502 Columbus encountered a large canoe off the coast of what is now Honduras filled with trade goods. He boarded the canoe and rifled through the cargo which included cacao beans, copper and flint axes, copper bells, pottery, and colorful cotton garments. He took one prisoner and what he wanted from the cargo and let the canoe continue. This was the first contact of the Spanish with the civilizations of Central America.
The Treaty of Tordesillas was an attempt to solve the disputes with the Portuguese colonizers. It split the mostly unknown New World into two spheres of influence; however, when it was fully charted almost all the land fell in the Spanish sphere.
It was 1517 before another expedition from Cuba visited Central America landing on the coast of the Yucatán in search of slaves. This was followed by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards (just having finished a war against the Muslims in the Iberian peninsula) replaced the Amerindian local oligarchies and imposed a new religion: Christianity. (See also: Conquistador, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, Bartolomé de las Casas, Spanish Conquest of Yucatan)
Effect on Natives
European diseases and cruel systems of work (the famous haciendas and mining industry's mita) decimated the Amerindian population under its government. The Amerindians were killed from European diseases, leaving less workers for the mita and on the plantations. African Negro slaves began to be imported. Africans had been exposed to the diseases for centuries and therefore had evolved an immunity. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language in the same measurement and the Catholic Church even evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl and Guarani, contributing to the expansion of these Amerindian languages and equipping them with writing systems. The Amerindians allowed parts of Christianity to be a part in their lives due to their belief of manay. The Crown was not satisfied with this half-conversion and began forcing the Natives into plantations, work, eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbreeded, forming a Mestizo class. They were forced to trade and pay taxes to the Spanish government and were punished for disobeying the laws. Their idols were ruined by inspectors and their goods were traded to Europe, for the Amerindian signature design of geometrical designs were much different from the realistic figurative art of European countries.
Spanish colonies
Areas in the Americas under Spanish control included most of South and Central America, Mexico, parts of the Caribbean and much of the United States.
The initial years saw a struggle between the Conquistadores and the royal authority. The Conquistadores were often poor nobles that wanted to acquire the land and labourers (Encomienda) that they couldn't achieve in Europe. Rebellions were frequent (See Lope de Aguirre).
Caribbean
Spain claimed all islands in the Caribbean although they did not settle all of them. They had settlements in the Windward and Leeward Islands and:
Antigua and Barbuda
Cuba
Hispaniola, the modern Dominican Republic and Haiti
Jamaica
Puerto Rico
South America
Argentina - Buenos Aires was settled in 1580; independence was formally declared in 1816.
Bolivia - La Paz founded in 1548. Independent in 1825.
Chile - In 1541, the Spanish conquered the Incas. Chile won its independence from Spain in 1818
Colombia - In 1510 Spaniards founded Darien, the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas. In 1538 they established the colony of New Granada. Independence in 1824.
Ecuador - Conquistador Francisco Pizarro conquered the land in 1532; left Spain in 1809 to form Greater Columbia.
Paraguay - Asuncion, Paraguay was founded in 1537. Independent from 1811.
Peru - Conquered from the Incas in 1531. Independent in 1821.
Uruguay - Taken by Spain from Portugal in 1778. Part of Brazil from 1821-1828. Independence in 1828.
Venezuela - Caracas was founded in 1567. Independent in 1821.
Central America
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala - Settled by Spanish in 1523,
Honduras
Nicaragua - Founded in 1524 by Hernandez de Cordoba
These countries became independent from Spain in 1821 during Mexico's war of independence.
Panama - As part of Columbia, independent in 1819.
North America
Mexico
Florida including parts of modern-day Alabama and Mississippi
California and New Mexico - In the west the extent of Spanish colonies was formally set in 1819 by the Adam-Onis Treaty to replace nebulous boundaries. Most of the interior was not permanently inhabited by Spain. This included all or some part of the modern U.S. states of: California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Oklahoma, Kansas, Wyoming.
Louisiana territory - Spain controlled this territory from 1762-1803. Most of the north and interior was not inhabited by Spain. French settlers made up most of the inhabitants and new immigrants. This included land in the present U.S. states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Idaho, and Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
New World Trade
The precious metals were subjected to the Quinto Real tax, a fifth of everything seized. The silver of America (especially the mines of Zacatecas and Potosí) went to pay the enormous debt brought by the wars against the Reformation led by the Spanish kings.
Soon the exclusive of commerce between Europe and America was conceded to Seville (later to Cádiz).
Mexico served as a base for the later colonization of the Philippines (see Galeón de Manila)
Northern extent of Spanish influence
In 1720 a small expedition from Santa Fe met and attempted to parley with French allied Pawnee in what is now Nebraska. Things did not go well and a battle ensued; the Spanish were badly defeated, only 13 managing to return to New Mexico. Although this was a small engagement, it is significant being the furthest penetration of the Spanish into the Great Plains, setting the limit to Spanish expansion and influence there.
In 1781, a Spanish expedition during the American Revolutionary War left St. Louis, Missouri, then under Spanish control and reached as far as Fort St. Joseph at Niles, Michigan where the captured the fort while the British were away. Spanish territorial claims based on this furthest north penetration of Spain in North America were not supported at the treaty negotiations.
Independence
During the Peninsula War, several assemblies were established by the creole to rule the lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. This experience of self-government and the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions brought the struggle for independence, led by the Libertadores. The colonies freed themselves, often with help from the British empire, which aimed to trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In 1898, the United States won the Spanish-American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish occupation in the Americas.
Still, the early 20th century saw a stream of immigration of poor people and political exiles from Spain to the former colonies, especially Cuba, Mexico and Argentina. After the 1970s, the flow was inverted.
In the 1990s, Spanish companies like Repsol and Telefonica invested in South America, often buying privatized companies.
Currently, the Iberoamerican countries and Spain and Portugal have organized themselves as the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones
Scientific opinion regarding human antiquity in Mesoamerica has reflected larger trends in conceptualizing human antiquity in the western hemisphere in general. Within that foundational topic, the establishment of sites demonstrating human antiquity in Mesoamerica has centered on the association of remains and artifacts with geologic strata (context) and on the reliability of the dating of the remains and strata (methodologies
1.
The origins of 1. agriculture in Mesoamerica date to the Archaic period of Mesoamerican chronology, 8000-2000 BC. During this period many of the hunter gatherer micro-bands in the region began to cultivate wild plants. The cultivation of these plants probably started out as creating known areas of fall back, or starvation foods, near seasonal camps that the band could rely on when hunting was bad, or when there was a drought. The plants could have been brought purposely or by accident. The former could have been done by bringing a wild plant food closer to a camp site or to a frequented area so it was easier to get to or collect. The latter could have happened as certain plant seeds were eaten and not fully digested, causing these plants to grow wherever human habitation would take them. By creating these known areas of plant food it would have been easier for the band to be in the right place at the right time to collect them. As the Archaic period moved on, these cultivated plant foods became more and more important to the people of Mesoamerica. The reliability of the cultivated plant foods would allow the micro-bands to increase in size. These larger bands would require more food and that would lead to even greater reliance on purposely cultivated plant foods. Eventually, a subsistence pattern based on plant cultivation, supplemented with small game hunting, became much more reliable, efficient, and generated a larger yield. Another group to consider in the origins of Mesoamerican agriculture is the sedimentary fishers. These people would have already lived in semi-permanent villages and could have experimented with cultivating wild plants to supplement their shellfish diet. As cultivation became more focused, many plant species became domesticated. These plants were no longer able to reproduce on their own, and many of their physical traits were being modified by human farmers. The most famous of these, and the most important to Mesoamerican agriculture, is maize.
Crops The origin of maize is still not completely known. Richard MacNeish has done an extensive archaeological survey of Mesoamerica and determined that the most likely place for the first cultivation for maize was probably in the Tehuacan Valley around 5000 BC. However, how maize arrived at this point or how it was originally cultivated is still a mystery. Teosinte has been proposed as the ancestor of maize, but teosinte looks nothing like modern maize and many molecular botanists do not agree with this theory. The origin of maize aside, it became the single most important crop in all of Mesoamerica. Maize is storable for long periods of time, it can be ground into flour, and it easily turns into surplus for future use. Maize became vital to the survival of the people of Mesoamerica, and that is reflected in their origin myths, art work, and rituals. The second most important crop in Mesoamerican agriculture is the squash. Cultivated and domesticated before maize, dated to 8000 BC in Oaxaca, the people of Mesoamerica utilize several different types of squash. The most important may be the pumpkin and its relatives. The seeds of the pumpkin are full of protein and are easily transportable. Another important member of the squash family is the bottle gourd. This fruit may not have been very important as a food source, but the gourd itself would have been useful as a water container. Another major food source in Mesoamerica are beans. These may have been used as early as squash and maize, but the exact date of domestication is not known. These three crops form the center of Mesoamerican agriculture. Maize, beans, and squash form a triad of products that gave the people of Mesoamerica some great advantages. These three crops form a complementing nutrient triangle. Each contributes some part of the essential vitamin mix that human beings need to survive. The other benefit that these three crops have is that planting them together helps to retain nutrients in the soil.
Many other plants were first cultivated in Mesoamerica; tomatoes, avocados, guavas, chile peppers, manionc, agave, and prickly pear were all cultivated as additional food resources. While rubber trees and cotton plants were useful for making cultural products like latex balls and clothing. Another culturally important plant was the cacao. Cacao beans were used as money and later the beans were used for making another valuable product, chocolate.
Land Use One of the greatest challenges in Mesoamerica for farmers is the lack or useable land and the poor condition of the soil. Several different methods have been used to combat these problems. The two main ways to combat poor soil quality or lack of nutrients in the soil are to leave fields fallow for a period of time, and to use slash and burn techniques. In slash and burn agriculture, trees are cut down and left to dry for a period of time. The dry wood and grasses are then set on fire and the resulting ash adds nutrients to the soil. These two techniques are often combined to retain as many nutrients as possible. However, in the jungle environment, no matter how careful a farmer is nutrients are often hard to retain. To combat the lack of large tracts of useable land, farmers in Mesoamerica have found ways to create more land. The first way to create land is to form terraces along the slopes of mountain valleys. Terraces allow farmers to use more land on the mountain slopes, and to move farther up the mountain than they normally would be able to. Some terraces were made out of walls of stones and others were created by cutting down large trees and mounding soil around them. In the valleys themselves, there is evidence that the Maya used raised fields in some of the swampy areas and onto the flood plains. These practices were also used by the Aztecs. However, the Aztecs created floating plots of land called chinampas. These were floating plots of mud and soil placed on top of layers of thick water vegetation.
Paleo-Indian Period 1. c. 20,000 BC - 8,000 BC
A period of hunters and gatherers.
Archaic Era c. 8,000 BC - 20th century BC
The development of agriculture in the region. Permanent villages established. Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving becomes common.
Pre-Classic Era c. 20th century BC - 2nd century AD
The start of nation-states. The first large scale ceremonial architecture, development of cities. The development and flourishing of the Olmec civilization. Early Zapotec and Maya civilization.
Classic Era c. mid 2nd century - early 10th century
Teotihuacan grows to a metropolis and its empire dominates Mesoamerica. The greatest era of the cities of the Maya southern lowlands, such as Tikal, Palenque, and Copan.
The Classic Era ended earlier in Central Mexico, with the fall of Teotihuacan around the 7th century, than it did in the Maya area, which continued for centuries more. The late period of continued Maya development is sometimes known as the Florescent Era.
In the early 20th century, the term Old Empire was sometimes given to this era of Maya civilization in an analogy to Ancient Egypt; the term is now considered inaccurate and has long been out of use by serious writers on the subject.
Post-Classic Era 10th century - 16th century.
Collapse of many of the great nations and cities of the Classic Era, although some continue, such as in Oaxaca, Cholula, and the Maya of Yucatán, such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal. This is sometimes seen as a period of increased chaos and warfare. The Toltec for a time dominate central Mexico in the 11th - 13th century, then collapse. The northern Maya are for a time united under Mayapan. The Aztec Empire rises in the early 15th century and seems on the path to asserting a dominance over the whole region not since Teotihuacan, when Mesoamerica is discovered by Spain and conquered by the Conquistadores.
The late florescence of the northern Maya was sometimes called New Empire in the early 20th century, but this term is no longer seen as appropriate nor used.
Arguably, the Post-Classic continued until the conquest of the last independent native state of Mesoamerica, Tayasal, in 1697; see also: Spanish conquest of Yucatán
The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán was a long and involved process taking some 170 years to complete. The 1. Maya had no single leader (like the Inca of Peru), but instead lived in numerous independent states, some of which fiercely resisted foreign domination. Also, the land had no gold or silver except for small amounts acquired by trade, so many early Spanish Conquistadores were attracted instead to central Mexico or Peru, which seemed to offer quicker and easier riches.
The Maya are a people of southern 1. Mexico and northern Central America with some 3,000 years of rich history. The Maya were part of the Mesoamerican Pre-Columbian cultures. Contrary to popular myth, the Maya people never "disappeared"; millions still live in the region, many of them still speak one of the Maya family of languages. This article will mostly concern itself with their civilization before the conquest by Spain.
by Luis V. Rodriguez, C33000 P.O. Box 7500, B5-113, Crescent City, CA 95532 Webster's dictionary defines mestizo as "a person of mixed blood; a person of mixed Spanish and Amerindian blood." It is necessary to understand this as many persons with Hispanic surnames have been mis-identified by the government and ignorant people as simply "Hispanics" or "Mexican." Actually, many such people are of Native-American-Spanish lineage. Columbus landed in what is now known as Mexico and called it America. He called the native people there Indians. As time progressed, Cortez arrived from Spain, as did Coronado, Cabeza de Baca, Ornate-each carrying out conquests of the indigenous peoples in much of what is now Mexico.. In addition, they claimed as "New Spain" the vast majority of what we call the southwestern states, including California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado. The Spaniards followed the usual pattern of conquest, subjecting native women to pregnancy by rape, enslaving men, women and children as they traversed Mexico looking for the "Seven Cities of Gold" rumored to exist in the north. Along the way the Spaniards renamed native villages as Spanish pueblos and usually erected a church on the spot of the captured and destroyed village, forcing the natives under torture and fear to swear allegiance to Spain and the Church. While renaming villages, they renamed the native peoples with Spanish names. This became the common practice when native children were born and baptized with a Spanish, Christian name. Some of the natives that the Spaniards took with them as slaves and guides in their quest escaped, for example, the Tlascalans who were taken in by the Zuni in New Mexico. All major cities throughout the southwestern states were named by the Spaniards before the U.S. gained control in the mid-1800s. Meanwhile, the Spaniards for the previous 300 years had been mixing with the natives. In 1599, Don Juan Onate of Spain sent Vicente Zaldivar to avenge the killing of Zaldivar's brother, Juan de Zaldivar and his small detachment of soldiers who were sent to extort goods from the Acomas. Vicente Zaldivar and his soldiers killed hundreds of the Acoma; all remaining who did not escape were taken captive. Women over the age of 12 were sentenced to 20 years labor; the men were not only sentenced to 20 years labor, but also subject to having one foot chopped off so they would not run off. Young girls were given to the Church and the young boys were given to Zaldivar as a reward. In 1680, theTaos Revolt by natives and mestizos (Mexicans) in Taos, New Mexico, was organized and led by Luis Tupato, Pope and Alonza Catiti. Some of the tribes participating in the revolt were the Tesque, Zia, Pokkwoge, Hopi, Picuris, Tua, Oke, Kiuwa. Retaliations by the Spaniards and Americans were extensive. Prior to the Spaniards' arrival, the Tua (Taos Indians), Ute, Apache, and Comanche utilized the Tua village as a main trade center and mixed through marriage. After the 1680 revolt, they mixed with the Jircarilla Apache and moved to Scott County, Kansas, but were later brought back to Taos by the Spaniards. The Picuris (Pikuria) and the Taos Indians were descendants of the same ancestral family group which existed in 900 A.D. Many tribes of the Tiwa nation fled and commingled with various other tribes: Zuni, Navajo, Hopi, and Jemez. In 1694 the Spaniard Diego de Vargas, with help from his allies, the Zia, Katishtya (San Felipe), and Tamaya (Santa Ana), attacked and destroyed the Jemez village. The Isleta (Tuei), took refuge with other Tiwa villages until 1681 when Governor Oterman, attempting to re-establish Spanish control, attacked several Tiwa villages and took hundreds of captives and resettled them south of El Paso at a place he called Isleta del Sur. The Sandia (Nafiat), and Kapo mixed with the Hopi after the 1680 revolt, as did the Kiowa (Santa Domingo). Some were moved to Acoma along with the Cochiti refugees and later established the Pueblo of Laguna. (Tanos Indians arrived later.) In 1689 the Spanish Governor Domingo de Cruziate attacked and killed more than 600 natives at the Zia village, destroyed the village and sold captives into slavery. Those who escaped built a village near the Jemez, but later returned to Zia and remained loyal to the Spaniards, often acting as allies in attacks on other villages. To this day they are still regarded as social outcasts for these reasons. The Laguna Pueblo (as named by Spaniards) was established in 1699 and later incorporated many Zuni, Acoma, Katishtya, Zia, Oraibi, Sandia, and Jemez. (The native name for the Laguna village was Kawaik.) Presently this tribe has become one and occupies Paquate, Encinal, Paraje, New Laguna, Mesita, Casa Blanca, and Seama. In the 1800s, the Kapo (Santa Clara) tribe spit up due to many not wanting to accept the federal government's programs. Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, at which time it still controlled all of the aforementioned territory of the southwestern states. Mexico, as a result of independence, opened its doors to full citizenship and rights for all natives (Indians), which included the right to stake land claims. Many Indians and mestizos accepted citizenship and filed land claims, but many refused. (Remember the extent of territory which was Mexico at that time and the innumerable natives and mestizos within that territory.) It wasn't until 1848 that the "Treaty of Guadelupe de Hildago" was signed and not until 1853 that the "Gadsden Purchase" sold off the various southwestern states to the United States government. At that time the United States slammed the door on all natives (Indians). They were not entitled to anything but a good killing, as General Sheridan coined the phrase "The only good Indian is a dead Indian." The indigenous peoples of the southwest had been battling at this point for 300 years, and would now refocus it against the new oppressors, the USA. Many great war chiefs came from the Apache Nation, such as Geronimo, Cochise, Mangas Colorado, Victorio, Armijo, Chato, Naiche, Taza, Mangas, Jr., Bonito, Huerro Grande, El Sordo, Barboncito, Estrella, Cadette, Loco, Nana, as well as Manuelito of the Navajos, Santana of the Kiowas, Delshay of the Tonto Apache, Eskiminzin of the Aravaipa, Chihuahua of the Chiriehua, from1860 to 1886. (Note all the Spanish names; many spoke fluent Spanish.) Unfortunately many Native Americans, ignorant of historical facts, try to project the government "roll number" of the Bureau of Indian Affairs as some great identity tag, as though it makes them more "Red" or "Indian" than a mestizo whose ancestors took to the deep mountains to survive wave after wave of genocidal attacks. Not all natives were captured or surrendered in the government forts and reservations and given a "Biscuit Number" for rations. Many escaped the attacks, escaped from the forts, escaped from the "Long Walks," from the reservations, and remained free, without a BIA Biscuit Roll number-not to mention all those who accepted Mexican full citizenship, received land (stake-claims), took Hispanic names, and filtered into the oppressor's overwhelming systematic domination to secure their best interests. Lastly, there are mestizos of mixed blood, whether Apache-Spanish, or Navajo-Spanish, Zuni-Spanish, or Maya-Spanish, who may have filtered into the U.S. government's files misidentified. Those who act like they must have a Biscuit-Government-ration number to be "Red" and a white British or French last name to be "Indian," should wake up and check the efforts of many who have continued the fight of our ancestors for our indigenous cultural/spiritual ways and human rights, as well as self-determination. Many personally oppose the "American" part of the label "Native American Indian." What is the difference if some would rather identify themselves as "mestizo" or "mestizo-Mexicano" or "Apache-Mexicano"? A Mexican is a person whose nationality-country of origin, is Mexico. It's not a true "race" identity. The United States refused to even recognize our people as "persons" within the meaning of the law until 1879 (Standing Bear v. Cook-a federal habeas corpus case). So if a person of mixed southwestern native and Spanish blood prefers identification as "mestizo" and the American government misidentifies him/her as "Mexican race," yet the person stands true as a warrior for both his "Red-Indian" heritage and pre-1853 "Mexican" heritage, this does not make him any less "Red" or "Indian" than those with a government roll number-especially if he knows, practices, and follows the "Red Road." Prejudices are derived from ignorance. A roll number is nothing more than a tag of subjugation and capitulation. -Mitakuye oyasin. In the spirit of Crazy Horse, Geronimo, Mangas, Colorado, and all the other great warriors and chiefs who fought and died in the struggle to maintain self-determination.
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Mestizo is the mixture of Europeans (Spanish) and Indian ancestry (Amerindians). It comes from a Spanish word meaning mixed. They are refugees from the Caste War of Yucatan in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. They were Catholics and spoke the Spanish language, but as time went by they began to speak English, other languages and changed the religion they had. In Colonial days, they were discriminated against because of their Spanish language. However, they soon became the second largest cultural group in Belize. The majority are in the Northern districts (Corozal and Orange Walk). They also formed the largest and the most influential part of the population in many Latin-American Countries.
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1. The Xtabai, a well-known Mestizo myth
Xtabai is a myth created by the mestizo ancestors. She is said to be a beautiful young girl who has long straight black hair. The Xtabai, according to the ancestors, has her feet like that of a bird. She only appears to people that wonder in dark places near the bush and late at night. The Xtabai only calls to men, usually drunk men. She takes them to the bush and sometimes kills them or only hurts them and leaves them with pain in the midst of the bush. The Xtabai then turns herself into a tree of prickles or into a snake. Following is a story of the said Xtabai.
Juan is fifteen years old. He lives in the village of Ranchito. Every Sunday he goes to Corozal Town. He always goes home late at night. Elena, Juan's mother, tells him that something can happen to him. He does not listen to his mother. He still goes to town every Sunday.
One night, while coming from town, Juan sees something. It is black and white. As he comes nearer he sees that it's a beautiful girl. She is combing her long black hair. She calls to him as she moves inside the bush. Juan follows her. They go far inside the bush. Juan now remembers what his mother tells him. He now remembers the story of the Xtabai. He tries to run but cannot. He feels cold.
The Xtabai comes slowly and hugs him. The beautiful girl changes into a tree of prickles. Her feet are like those of a bird, with long, sharp claws. The prickles enter Juan's body. Her long claws scratch him. Suddenly the Xtabai disappears, and he falls to the ground.
Juan tries to get up and find the road-side. After two hours he reaches the road. His whole body hurts. He feels hot. He sees a car stop. He stops it, and the driver picks him up. He talks to Juan, but Juan is silent. The driver says to himself, "I think he has seen the Xtabai."
Elena takes Juan to an old man. Mr. Jacinto, the old man, collects leaves and bathes Juan. After a week Juan is well again. He tells his friends the story. Juan learns a good lesson. He now obeys his mother.
1. Typical Mestizo guitar and case
The guitar is a typical musical instrument played by the Mestizo people. It is often used for something called Serenata in which a lover would sing at the window of his beloved one. It was said that this Serenata would bring about the marriage of the couple. Serenata is now only famous in Spanish-speaking countries
Mestizo
1. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Mestizo is a term of Spanish origin describing peoples of mixed race background. In Hispanic America, the term originally referred to the children of one European and one American Indian parent. Later the term became common for all people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in the Spanish American colonies. Mestizos officially make up the majority of the population in Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and are significant in most other Hispanic American countries, with the possible exception of Cuba and Dominican Republic.(N.B.: In Honduras, the mestizo population has absorbed the presence of black Africans who were taken there in the mid-16th century.) Many Americans of Hispanic and Latino origin identify themselves as mestizos as well, particularly those who also identify as Chicano.
In the Philippines, the term refers to people of mixed Malay and Chinese or Spanish descent. However, colloquially, the term "mestizo" (sometimes mestiso; mestiza for females) refers to a person of mixed ancestry (not just Spanish or Chinese) and who has a light skin color.
